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(1)
In Buchi Emecheta’s Second Class Citizen, allusion serves as a powerful literary tool that enriches the narrative and deepens the reader’s understanding of the protagonist’s struggles. Emecheta draws upon a wide range of cultural, historical, and literary references to highlight the challenges faced by Adah, a Nigerian woman navigating the complexities of both colonial and post-colonial societies.
One prominent form of allusion in the novel is to colonial history and Western literature. The very title, Second Class Citizen, alludes to the colonial hierarchy that relegated Africans to inferior status within the British Empire. Through references to British cultural norms, educational systems, and legal frameworks, Emecheta subtly invokes the legacy of colonialism and its persistent effects on immigrants in Britain. For example, Adah’s pursuit of the “British Dream” is laden with allusions to the supposed opportunities of the West, which are quickly contrasted with the harsh realities of racism and discrimination.
The novel also alludes to religious and traditional African beliefs. Adah’s internal conflicts are often framed by references to Christian morality, indigenous customs, and the expectations of womanhood within both Nigerian and British contexts. These allusions serve to highlight the protagonist’s sense of displacement and her struggle to reconcile multiple identities.
Furthermore, Emecheta references historical figures and moments, both implicitly and explicitly, to situate Adah’s personal journey within a broader social struggle. Allusions to notable activists, writers, and events underscore the collective nature of the fight against oppression and the quest for self-realization In Other Words allusion in Second Class Citizen functions as a means of connecting Adah’s personal experiences to larger historical, cultural, and literary currents.
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(2)
Adah’s experience of motherhood in Buchi Emecheta’s Second Class Citizens is portrayed as both a source of profound strength and a site of intense struggle. From the outset, motherhood is central to Adah’s identity and ambitions. Her determination to provide a better life for her children motivates many of her decisions, including her relentless pursuit of education and her eventual journey to Britain.
Motherhood, for Adah, is not simply a biological role but a deeply emotional and psychological commitment. She endures numerous hardships poverty, racism, and marital abuse yet she remains fiercely protective of her children. This protective instinct is evident in her willingness to work multiple jobs and make personal sacrifices to ensure her children’s survival and well-being in an often hostile environment.
At the same time, Emecheta does not romanticize Adah’s experience. The narrative highlights the loneliness and exhaustion motherhood imposes on her. In Britain, Adah faces social isolation, limited support systems, and the constant threat of losing her children, especially when she is threatened with eviction or legal action by social services. The responsibilities of motherhood are compounded by her husband Francis’s lack of support, both emotionally and financially. Instead of being a partner, Francis becomes another source of adversity, often blaming Adah for their hardships and showing little interest in fatherhood.
Adah’s journey also reflects the tension between traditional expectations and her personal aspirations. In Nigerian society, motherhood is revered, but it is also used to restrict women’s autonomy. Adah must therefore negotiate her role as a mother with her desire for independence and self-fulfillment. She challenges the notion that motherhood should confine a woman to subservience or silence, insisting on her right to personal growth even as she nurtures her children.
In summary, Adah’s experience of motherhood is multifaceted. It is characterized by resilience, sacrifice, and deep love, but also by frustration, loneliness, and resistance to oppressive norms.
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(3)
Paleo’s treatment of Nii in Alex Agyei-Agyiri’s
Unexpected Joy at Dawn is particularly interesting because it encapsulates the complexities of identity, belonging, and human empathy within the context of forced migration and national boundaries. Paleo, as a member of the Ghanaian authorities responsible for identifying and deporting “aliens” during the “Ghana Must Go” era, occupies a position of power over Nii, who is desperate to prove his right to remain in Ghana.
What stands out about Paleo’s treatment is his mixture of official duty and personal ambivalence. On one hand, he is an enforcer of a harsh immigration policy firm, sometimes brusque, and tasked with upholding the law even when it leads to the suffering of people like Nii. Paleo’s adherence to bureaucratic procedures highlights the dehumanizing effects of such policies, as individuals are reduced to paperwork and documentation, their personal histories and struggles rendered invisible by the system.
On the other hand, Paleo is portrayed with moments of empathy and internal conflict. He is not a caricature of cruelty, but a man aware of the pain his actions cause. There are instances when he hesitates, questions the justice of his role, or treats Nii with unexpected kindness and understanding. For example, Paleo sometimes offers advice, softens his tone, or expresses regret about the circumstances, suggesting that he recognizes Nii’s humanity and the injustice embedded in the system he serves.
This duality in Paleo’s behavior makes his treatment of Nii compelling. It reflects the broader moral dilemmas faced by individuals caught between personal conscience and institutional duty. Paleo’s actions force the reader to confront the uncomfortable reality that sometimes, good people are compelled to do harmful things by forces larger than themselves. His interactions with Nii also underscore the shared vulnerability of all individuals under such repressive policies, blurring the lines between oppressor and victim. Ultimately, Paleo’s treatment of Nii is interesting because it humanizes the mechanisms of exclusion and highlights the personal cost of nationalistic policies. Through Paleo, the novel invites readers to consider the complexities of compassion, responsibility, and survival within divided societies.
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(4)
Irony is a significant narrative device in Alex Agyei-Agyiri’s Unexpected Joy at Dawn, used to illuminate the contradictions, disappointments, and unexpected outcomes that shape the experiences of the characters, especially within the context of migration and national identity.
One of the most striking examples of irony is embodied in the novel’s title itself. The phrase “Unexpected Joy at Dawn” suggests hope and renewal, yet much of the narrative is marked by suffering, alienation, and loss. Nii, the protagonist, travels to Ghana with the expectation of finding refuge, acceptance, and a sense of belonging. Instead, he is confronted by suspicion, rejection, and the harsh reality of being labeled an outsider in a country he considers home. The dawn, symbolizing a new beginning, ironically brings not joy but a fresh wave of hardship.
Another layer of irony is found in the nationalistic policies that underpin the story’s conflict. The expulsion of “aliens” from Ghana is meant to protect and purify the nation, yet it ultimately fractures families, sows distrust, and undermines the very sense of national unity it claims to defend. The authorities’ attempts to safeguard Ghanaian identity result in widespread fear and suffering, including for those born and raised in Ghana who suddenly find themselves classified as foreigners. The irony lies in the fact that these measures, intended to foster security and cohesion, instead breed uncertainty and division.
There is also situational irony in the personal journeys of characters. Nii’s efforts to secure a stable life through adherence to rules and bureaucracy are repeatedly thwarted by the very systems he tries to navigate. Each attempt to find security whether through paperwork, relationships, or appeals to authority leads to further complications, exposing the gap between official narratives and lived reality. Furthermore, the novel uses dramatic irony to engage the reader. The audience is often aware of the artificiality and injustice of the boundaries and labels imposed on the characters, even as those within the story remain trapped by them.
(5)
The narrator’s experiences at Liberty Paint in Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man are pivotal, serving as a powerful microcosm of the racial tensions, dehumanization, and contradictions that define his journey in American society.
Upon arriving at Liberty Paint, the narrator is introduced to a factory renowned for producing the country’s “purest” white paint, famously branded as “Optic White.” The irony of this setting is immediately apparent: the company’s success depends on the unseen labor of Black workers, whose efforts and identities are rendered invisible in the creation of a product celebrated for its whiteness. The narrator is assigned to work under the supervision of Mr. Kimbro and later Lucius Brockway, both of whom represent different facets of the factory’s hierarchy and its racial dynamics.
His initial task involves adding a few drops of black dope to the paint to achieve its famous whiteness. This process is laden with symbolism: the purity of the white paint relies on the presence of blackness, yet the final product must show no trace of it. The narrator’s confusion and anxiety as he follows instructions underscore his growing awareness of the paradoxes and absurdities of the world around him. Any deviation from the prescribed formula results in harsh criticism and threats, reflecting the unforgiving nature of the system that demands conformity while denying individuality.
Working with Lucius Brockway, a Black man who has spent his life in the bowels of the factory, the narrator encounters another layer of irony and conflict. Brockway is fiercely loyal to the company but paranoid about losing his position. He views the narrator as a threat, leading to a violent confrontation that culminates in an explosion. This incident not only exposes the lack of solidarity among the oppressed, fostered by the system’s divisive tactics, but also results in the narrator’s physical and psychological trauma. The aftermath of the explosion is significant. The narrator is sent to the factory hospital, where he is subjected to dehumanizing medical experiments and shock treatment.
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(6)
The fight between Ras and Clifton in Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man is a powerful, symbolic moment that crystallizes the ideological divisions and personal tensions within the Black community during the narrator’s time in Harlem. Ras the Exhorter (later Ras the Destroyer) and Tod Clifton represent two contrasting approaches to Black identity, resistance, and the struggle for social justice.
Ras is a charismatic, radical figure who advocates for racial pride, separatism, and direct confrontation with white oppression. He sees any cooperation with white organizations, including the Brotherhood (to which Clifton and the narrator belong), as a betrayal of Black people’s interests. Ras’s rhetoric is militant and uncompromising; he calls for unity among Black people and views those who work with white-led or interracial groups as traitors.
Clifton, by contrast, is a dedicated member of the Brotherhood, committed to collective action and interracial solidarity at least initially. He is charismatic, intelligent, and deeply invested in the cause of uplifting the Black community, but his approach is more pragmatic and less dogmatic than Ras’s. Clifton believes in working within larger political structures to achieve social change, even if those structures are imperfect or dominated by white leaders.
Their confrontation is not merely a physical fight but an ideological clash. When Ras publicly attacks Clifton, he accuses him of being an “Uncle Tom” and a puppet of white interests, attempting to shame him in front of the community. Clifton refuses to back down, defending his choices and standing by his principles. The fight quickly becomes violent, with Ras wielding a spear and calling for Clifton’s death as a lesson to others. The narrator intervenes, helping Clifton escape, but the incident leaves a profound impact on the narrator’s understanding of the fractures within the movement. The fight is significant for several reasons. First, it exposes the deep divisions among African Americans regarding how best to resist oppression and achieve equality.
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(7)
Heathcliff’s return to Wuthering Heights has a profound and destabilizing effect on the marriage between Edgar Linton and Catherine Earnshaw. Before his reappearance, Edgar and Catherine’s relationship, though complicated by Catherine’s passionate and tumultuous nature, is relatively stable. Edgar represents gentility, calm, and social respectability, while Catherine, having chosen him over Heathcliff, strives to adapt to the genteel life at Thrushcross Grange. However, the equilibrium of their marriage is shattered the moment Heathcliff reenters their lives.
Heathcliff’s presence rekindles Catherine’s intense, almost elemental attachment to him a bond rooted in childhood and soul-deep affinity, distinct from her more civilized affection for Edgar. Catherine herself famously articulates this difference, saying her love for Edgar is “like the foliage in the woods,” but her love for Heathcliff “resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary.” Heathcliff’s return reminds Catherine of what she sacrificed for social standing and security, and she is drawn back into the emotional turbulence that characterizes their relationship.
For Edgar, Heathcliff’s return is deeply unsettling. He immediately senses the threat Heathcliff poses—not just as a figure from Catherine’s past, but as a rival who awakens passions in her that Edgar cannot match. Edgar’s natural reserve and gentleness are no match for Heathcliff’s dark charisma and the force of his connection with Catherine. Tensions escalate as Heathcliff insinuates himself into the household, cultivating a friendship with Isabella, Edgar’s sister, partly to irritate Edgar and to provoke Catherine.
Catherine, caught between her husband and her soulmate, grows increasingly agitated and unstable. Her behavior becomes erratic as she struggles with her divided loyalties, and the emotional strain leads to her mental and physical decline. The marital harmony between Edgar and Catherine is replaced by jealousy, suspicion, and anguish. Edgar becomes more isolated and helpless as Catherine’s health deteriorates, unable to compete with the depth of feeling that binds her to Heathcliff. Ultimately, Heathcliff’s return exposes the fragility of Catherine and Edgar’s marriage.
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(8)
Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange are the two principal settings in Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights, and they are designed as dramatic contrasts, both in their physical appearances and in what they symbolize within the novel. Wuthering Heights is situated on the moors, exposed to the elements and characterized by its harsh, rugged, and gothic atmosphere.
The very name “Wuthering” refers to the tumultuous weather and the ceaseless wind that batter the house. The architecture is old, dark, and sturdy, with narrow windows, heavy stone walls, and a generally forbidding appearance. Life inside the Heights mirrors its environment: the inhabitants are passionate, tempestuous, and often embroiled in conflict. The emotional intensity and rawness of the Earnshaw and later Heathcliff household are reflected in the wildness of the house itself. Wuthering Heights stands for nature, untamed emotion, and the primal forces of love, hatred, and revenge.
In direct contrast, Thrushcross Grange is located in a sheltered valley, surrounded by cultivated parkland and gardens. The Grange is elegant, brightly lit, and refined, with well-maintained grounds and a peaceful, orderly atmosphere. Its architecture is genteel and welcoming, representing comfort, civilization, and social respectability. The Linton family, who reside there, embody these values: they are calm, cultured, and emotionally restrained. Life at the Grange is structured, safe, and governed by decorum and gentility. Thrushcross Grange thus symbolizes culture, reason, and the ideals of Victorian society.
These two houses also serve as symbols of the characters and their relationships. Wuthering Heights aligns with characters like Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw, whose passionate and rebellious natures are at odds with social norms. Thrushcross Grange, on the other hand, is associated with Edgar and Isabella Linton, whose lives are shaped by convention and refinement. The movement of characters between the two houses Catherine’s transition from the Heights to the Grange, Heathcliff’s eventual domination of both reflects the ongoing tension between wildness and civilization, passion and order, that drives the narrative. In summary, Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange are more than mere settings.